Barriers to Prostate Cancer Screening

Barriers to Prostate Cancer Screening Prostate Cancer: A Man’s Dilemma Afzal Hussain Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in Canadian men. In 2013, the Canadian Cancer Society estimated that 23,600 men will be diagnosed with cancer; a further 3,900 will die from the disease in Canada (Canadian Cancer Society, 2014). The prostate is part of the male reproductive system; it surrounds the urethra (tube that carries urine and semen through the penis). Prostate Cancer Canada (2014) states, â€Å"Prostate cancer is a disease where some prostate cells have lost normal control of growth and division. They no longer function as healthy cells (Prostate Cancer Canada). Potential barriers to screening includes socioeconomic status, lack of health care, culture, and false experiences of medical treatments. These barriers and other misunderstandings of the causes of prostate cancer impede the process for early screening further delaying early diagnosis and treatment. This paper explores socioeconomic status, race, fear, and sexual function as perceived barriers to prostate screening; it also identifies strategies that promote successful screening and eventual recovery. Canadian Cancer Society in their statistical report of 2013 reports, â€Å"Prostate cancer is rarely found in men younger than 50, most of the deaths associated with prostate cancer are found in men older than 75 years. Canadian males are more likely to develop prostate cancer, with 1 in 7 males expected to be diagnosed with prostate cancer in their lifetime. On average, 65 Canadian men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer every day. On average, 11 Canadian men will die of prostate c ancer every day. (CCS) Socioeconomic Status Better survival is a testimony to the advances in research and treatment, but improving survival and reducing prostate cancer diagnosis is more resourceful to a better quality of life. Treatments and technological advancements in diagnosis and medications have transformed survival rates in cancer tremendously. Despite the overall improvement in survivorship in prostate cancer patients, socioeconomic inequalities in survival of prostate cancer patients remains a constant challenge in healthcare. Most men diagnoses with prostate cancer are at high risk, mainly because of their low socioeconomic status, unemployment, lack of education and inability to afford health care services. The Institute of Medicine (IOM) report, Care without Coverage: Too Little, Too late states that, â€Å"People without health insurance often go without appropriate care. For example, the uninsured more often go without cancer screening tests, delaying diagnosis and leading to premature death. † (Institut e of Medicine [IOM], 2002) In Canada, a fragment of the population lives on social assistance and cannot afford quality health care services, these â€Å"disadvantaged people† faces many health challenges and are at high risk for health issues. Residents faced with these challenges find it harder to have prostate cancer screenings despite doing their best to facilitate socioeconomic changes in their life. Fortunately, in Canada, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) provide prostate screening to low income citizens who cannot afford the screening. One such organization in Calgary, Prostate Cancer Centre has been a model of excellence in this service to the community. However, in Alberta, Quebec, and British Columbia, prostate screenings is not medically covered by provincial health plans. Therefore, men persuing screening will have to pay out of his pocket or will incur charges through his health plan. Crawford (2010) in her online news article states, â€Å"The PSA test has been used as a widespread screening tool since the mid-1990s, but has been dogged by controversy. While seven provinces pay any man to get tested, B.C., Alberta and Quebec do not, unless there are risk factors such as a family history of the disease (Crawford, 2010). This clearly shows the partial distribution in persuing health care services within Canada. Jamuir, Robinson Shavers (2008) found that, â€Å" Underinsurance is of particular concern for racial/ethnic minorities, who are more likely than others to report having difficulties paying medical bills despite having medical insurance coverage16 and it may contribute to the lower rates of cancer screening observed for these groups.(p. 843). Patients having the privilege of an extended private insurance coverage feel a sense of economic security. The real question is what is the case with the ordinary person without any coverage? Someone with a minimal wage and/or without coverage may feel the pangs of hopelessness, neglect, and long-term suffering. This disadvantage stems from differences in the receipt of treatment and access to high-quality healthcare treatment presented with low economic status. Furthermore, considering the imbalance between economic classes in regards to access to prostate screening, it is viable to suggest a level playing field where screening should be available to all men, despite their income status or health care coverage especially considering the Canadian Cancer Society reports on new instances of the disease annually. Also reducing the cost/payments for screening will be a significant boost for uninsured patients, because patients can express greater satisfaction of having the screening done despite having a low-income status. Another important strategy is to make sure that an all-accessible approach towards this screening, where men can afford the screening despite not having enough income or insurance coverage, in doing so having the satisfaction of economic security. Race In their research titled â€Å"Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Survival among Men Diagnosed with Prostate Cancer White, Coker, Du, Eggleston Williams (2011) found that, â€Å"Racial/ethnic disparities in prostate cancer survival have also been documented in the literature, and can be attributed to differences in socioeconomic status (p. 1080). In Canada, race is also a key risk factor for prostate cancer; it is prevalent in people of (Black African or Black Caribbean descent) who are at increased risk compared to white Canadians due to their genetic disposition, family history of prostate cancer, or age. Brooks (2013) states,† Black men are 60% more likely than white men to be diagnosed with prostate cancer during their lifetime, and is more than twice as likely to die from the disease. † (Brooks, 2013). Furthermore, besides ethnicity and age, numerous other factors contribute to prostate cancer. Canadian blacks are also higher risk due to the prevalence of comorbidities and heavy smoking or alcohol intake. These risk factors are common in Caribbean culture where people tend to take their health and lifestyle habits less seriously compared to North American culture. Despite the largest improvement in medication and technology Blacks remains a high risk of prostate cancer and is twice, more likely to be affected and die from the disease compared to whites. Having support groups plays a significant role in times of stress, especially when faced with a disease like prostate cancer. Establishing family networks and religious beliefs will offer a strong support base, especially when the patient is making health-related decisions that will establish his future life. Oster, Hedestig, Johansson, Klingstedt Lindh (2012) states, â€Å" Conversational group support can help men to realize that it is normal to experience mixed emotions including sadness, anger, or despair over losses c aused by the disease, and such interventions have shown improvements in anxiety, depression, men’s abilities to cope with the situation, and their quality of life.† (p.332) Fear. Many patients are afraid of prostate cancer screenings. With the increased amount of prostate cancer, patients diagnosed each year; countless men are still avoiding screening tests because it makes them uncomfortable with the results. This emotional and defensive action stems from the lack of independent knowledge patients have about the screening and the cancer itself. Presenting fear towards prostate screening changes the overall attitude towards treatment. This fear could provide a negative response to treatment. By expressing elevated levels of fear, a patient will be denied access to treatment and further delayed interventions, which may evolve into an advanced stage of the cancer. Furthermore, a patient presenting minimal levels of fear will be motivated to peruse screening, leading to an eventual diagnosis. Male patients are also hesitant to take screenings for prostate cancer due to many misconceptions, many believe the cause of their disease is due to sexual promiscuity or sexual orientation, sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and unhealthy lifestyle attributed to alcohol and smoking. Consedine, Adjei, Ramirez McKiernan (2008) found in their research, â€Å" The high incidence and mortality rates for prostate cancer among African American and other men of African descent may be expected to be reflected in elevated anxieties surrounding prostate cancer and the associated screening in these men. African Americans report greater fear of prostate cancer and screening, particularly for the Digital Rectal Examination (DRE). When applying these findings to advance nurse practitioners’ practices, it can be said that men in the high-risk groups must first be educated on the risks of prostate cancer (p. 1631). In preparing a patient for prostate screening, it is wise for the nurse to engage in careful planning and use best nursing practice while encouraging the patient to participate in screening thus eradicating some of his fear. Education on the risk of prostate cancer should be distributed among high-risk group. Patients in this group need to understand the implications of non-screening. One good nursing approach is the application of â€Å"change talk†, an important concept of motivational interviewing; the nurse will carefully implement strong concepts on why the patient should be screened, carefully supported with strong evidence of the clinical benefits. Apodaca, Magill, Longabaugh, Jackson Monti (2013) state, â€Å"more change talk predicted better outcomes, whereas more sustain talk predicted poorer outcomes† (P.35). Another important strategy to improve accordance to screening is through programs/ advertisements, which opens awareness of prostate cancer about the ge neral male public over 50 years of age. Proper media coverage will enhance the importance of the disease, the causative agents, and the importance of screening for a wider public. It will also help patients to self-reflect on their lifestyle and make progression towards health interventions. Himelboim, and Han (2014), in their research on Community Structure and Information Sources in Breast and Prostate Cancer Social Networks found that, â€Å" the past decade has witnessed a phenomenal growth in the use of the Internet—especially social media—in health care and management. From the user side, this means more opportunities to connect with others, obtain needed health information from available sources, and potentially benefit from that information (p. 211) Sexual Function. Prostate cancer will have an effect on the sex life of many prostate cancer patients. Most men affected by prostate cancer will develop erectile dysfunction after diagnosis. Men will also lose interest in sex and will have difficulty maintaining an erectile penis or performing penetrative sex. Beck, Robinson, Carlson (2013) found in their research that, â€Å" Sexual dysfunction is the most significant long lasting effect of prostate cancer (PrCa) treatment, despite the many medical treatments for erectile dysfunction, many couples report that they are dissatisfied with their sexual relationship and eventually cease sexual relations altogether. (p. 1637). Because one of the risk factors of prostate cancer is age, it is important to point out that many patients because of impotence may have already contacted symptoms of erectile dysfunction prior to developing prostate cancer. Treatment also plays an important role in the outcome of sexual functioning in patients, if patients are tolerable and react to the proper treatment regimen, the likelihood of sexual dysfunction will be minimized, and sexual urge will remain normal and intact. The stage of cancer also identifies the outcome of sexual functioning and the ability to deal with sensual life post surgery. Early screening can help a patient to identify possible malignant cancerous cells; it also can be helpful in managing impotency. Sex after diagnosis can be dreadful for various partners, especially when sexual desires may be minimal or much diminished. It may also dampen any chances for future families wanting to have kids in the distant future. A patient with impotence may consider sexual counselling by a sexologist to diminish any fears of sex. Chung Brock (2013) in their research states, â€Å"Sexual function remains an important issue in many men, who often continue to be interested in sex after pr ostate cancer treatment. It has been shown that the impact of sexual dysfunction is greater than the impact of urinary incontinence and over 70% of men felt their quality of life was adversely affected following cancer diagnosis and treatment † (p. 103). Participation in prostate cancer support groups helps patients to better be educated on sexual life after prostate cancer, just as support groups are helpful to eradicate the fear on early screenings, these groups will prepare patients on the trials of sexual intimacy after recovery, also providing coping mechanism for sexual dysfunction. Another strategy to cast away fears of sexual dysfunction is to promote sexual preferences amongst partners, which may bring a sense of satisfaction to both partners. Conclusion Prostate cancer patients continue to suffer from many dilemmas. Patients are continually faced with barriers to cancer care, which impede screening and treatment. Socioeconomic status, race, fear, and sexual function are all contributory factors in a patient dilemma when intrigued with tribulation of prostate cancer. Despite all the technological advancements, prostate cancer remains high in Black African or Black Caribbean descent compared to white males in Canada. Decision-making process when considering prostate cancer screening is influenced greatly by socioeconomic status, race, fear, and sexual dysfunction. These beliefs often result in a lower rate of compliance of prostate screenings. By establishing strategies to promote care for patients, the said barriers can be eradicated making treatment and recovery possible. Support groups, non-governmental organizations, media, and better insurance coverage for low-income families can all be used to effectively promote successful pros tate screenings thus eradicating social inequality, racial and sexual barriers and increasing compliance through educating prostate patients’ ways to address these barriers. Effective strategies will help to decrease morbidity and mortality of prostate cancer in Canada. References Apodaca, T. R., Magill, M., Longabaugh, R., Jackson, K. M., Monti, P. M. (2013). Effect of a significant other on client change talk in motivational interviewing. Consult Clinical Psychology, 81(1), 35-46. doi: 10.1037/a0030881 Beck, A., Robinson, J., Carlson, L. (2013). Sexual Values as the Key to Maintaining Satisfying Sex after Prostate Cancer Treatment: The Physical Pleasure–Relational Intimacy Model of Sexual Motivation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42 (8), 1637-1647. Brooks, D. (2013). Why are black men negatively affected by prostate cancer more than white men? Retrieved March 3, 2014, from http://www.cancer.org/cancer/news/expertvoices/post/2013/09/24/why-are-black-men-negatively-affected-by-prostate-cancer-more-than-white-men.aspx Canada Cancer Society. (2014). Canada Cancer Statistics 2013. Retrieved February 26, 2014, from http://www.cancer.ca/~/media/cancer.ca/CW/cancer information/cancer101/Canadian cancer statistics/canadian-cancer-statistics-2013-EN.pdf. Canada Cancer Society. (2014). Prostate Cancer Statistics. Retrieved February 26, 2014, from: http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/prostate/statistics/?region. Chung, E., Brock, G. (2013). Sexual Rehabilitation and Cancer Survivorship: A State of Art Review of Current Literature and Management Strategies in Male Sexual Dysfunction among Prostate Cancer Survivors. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 10102-111. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.03005.xginger Consedine, N. S., Adjei, B. A., Ramirez, P. M., McKiernan, J. M. (2008). An Object Lesson: Source Determines the Relations That Trait Anxiety, Prostate Cancer Worry, and Screening Fear Hold with Prostate Screening Frequency. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers Prevention, 17(7), 1631-1639. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-07-2538 Crawford, T. (2008). Prostate test a lifesaver with surveillance: equally important is the right course of treatment. Retrieved March 3, 2014, from: http://www.vancouversun.com/health/Prostate+test+life+saver+with+surveillance/3588621/story.html Himelboim, I., Han, J. Y. (2014). Cancer talk on twitter: community structure and information sources in breast and prostate cancer social networks. Journal of Health Communication, 19(2), 210-225. doi: 10.1080/10810730.2013.811321 Institute of Medicine. (2002). Care without Coverage: Too Little, Too Late. Retrieved March 2, 2014, from: http://www.iom.edu/reports/2002/care-without-coverage-too-little-too-late.aspx Oster, I., Hedestig, O., Johansson, M., Klingstedt, N., Lindh, J. (2012). Sharing experiences in a support group: Mens talk during the radiotherapy period for prostate cancer. Palliative Supportive Care, 11(4), 331-339. Prostate Cancer Canada (2014). What is prostate cancer? Retrieved February 18, 2014, from: http://www.prostatecancer.ca/Prostate-Cancer/About-Prostate-Cancer/What-is-prostate-cancer#.UxQQK4WmbIk. Robinson, J., Shavers, V. (2008). The Role of Health Insurance Coverage in Cancer Screening Utilization. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 19(3), 842-856. White, A., Coker, A., Du, X., Eggleston, K., Williams, M. (2011). Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Survival Among Men Diagnosed With Prostate Cancer in Texas. Cancer, 117 (5), 1080-1088.

Business Ethics in Brazil Essay

In this comparative survey of 126 Brazilian and U.S. business professionals, we explore the effect of national culture on ethical decisionmaking within the context of business. Using Reidenbach and Robin’s (1988) multi-criteria ethics instrument, we examined how these two countries’ differences on Hofstede’s individualism/collectivism Rafik I. Beekun (Ph.D., The University of Texas, Austin) is Professor of Management and Strategy in the Managerial Sciences Department at the University of Nevada, Reno. His current research interests are in the area of strategic adaptation, the link between national cultures and ethics, and the relationship between management and spirituality. He has published in such journals as Journal of Applied Psychology, Human Relations, Journal of Management and Decision Sciences. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to him at: Managerial Sciences Department, Mail Stop 28, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557-0206. Yvonne Ste dham (Ph.D., University of Kansas) is an Associate Professor of Management in the Managerial Sciences Department at the University of Nevada, Reno. She has published in such journals as the Journal of Management and Journal of Management Studies. Dr. Stedham’s research focuses on the following areas: CEO performance evaluation, gender discrimination in employment, ethics in business, decision making across cultures, and managing knowledge workers. Jeanne H. Yamamura (CPA, Ph.D., Washington State University) is an Associate Professor of Accounting in the College of Business at the University of Nevada Reno. Her teaching responsibilities include auditing and accounting information systems courses. Dr. Yamamura’s research focuses on the management of accounting professionals with a particular interest in cross-cultural differences and her work has been published in accounting and business journals. She has extensive practical experience in the field of accounting through her previous employment in public and private accounting. Rafik I. Beekun Yvonne Stedham Jeanne H. Yamamura dimension are related to the manner in which business practitioners make ethical decisions. Our results indicate that Brazilians and Americans evaluate the ethical content of actions or decisions differently when applying utilitarian criteria. By contrast, business people from both countries do not differ significantly when they use egoistic criteria in evaluating the ethical nature of business decisions. KEY WORDS: Brazil, egoism, ethics, national culture, U.S., utilitarianism As business organizations move from domestic to global and transnational competition, they are finding that cultural values vary significantly across national boundaries, and are likely to affect business practices (Husted, 2000). During the past decade, several researchers (Ferrell and Gresham, 1985; Hunt et al., 1989; Abratt et al., 1992; Hunt and Vitell, 1992; Tsalikis and Nwachukwu, 1991; Vitell et al., 1993) have noted the potential influence of national c ulture on ethics within a business context. What obscures the impact of national culture on ethics is that business practices may conflict with ethical values in a manner that medicine, law and government do not (DeGeorge, 1993). Not surprisingly, empirical research investigating the relationship between national culture and ethical decision-making is relatively sparse (Vitell et al., 1993). A primary reason for exploring the effects of culture on ethics is the increased globalization of business. This trend, in turn, is characterized by a diverse array of interorganizational arrangements that require cross-cultural interaction. As a result, cultural misunderstandings are likely to occur. One of the key areas where such mis- Journal of Business Ethics 42: 267–279, 2003.  © 2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. 268 Rafik I. Beekun et al. understandings take place is in the area of ethics, partly because of the influence that national cultures may have upon business ethics (Husted, 2000). Accordingly, in our study, we explore the relationship between national culture and business ethics. We will seek to investigate what process underlies ethical behavior across national boundaries. Understanding this process may help global managers develop tools to promote ethical behavior in their international workforce. In this research, we compare two culturally diverse countries, the United States (U.S.) and Brazil, in order to identify similarities and differences with regard to approaches toward ethical decision-making in a business context. Since culture is a broad concept, it is necessary to specify the values that could be related to behaviors or practices (Husted, 2000). For the purposes of this study, we used a well-established framework of national culture (Hofstede, 1980). Hofstede conducted one of the most important studies that ascertained the relationship between national culture and management. From this study, he identified several â€Å"value† dimensions along which countries differ. Using Hofstede’s (1980) framework, we carried out a crosscultural, comparative survey to assess the relationship between his individualism/collectivism dimension of national culture and ethical criteria. With respect to ethical decision-making, we adopted the instrument proposed and validated by Reidenbach and Robin (1988, 1990). They have generated a set of scales that measure the core dimensions characterizing different perspectives of ethical philosophy. Defining national culture: Hofstede’s dimensions of culture Multiple definitions and conceptualizations of national culture exist (Hofstede, 1980, 1988, 2001; Kluckhohn, 1951, 1962; Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961; Ronen and Shenkar, 1985; Trompenaars, 1993). Although these frameworks and conceptualizations typically center on values, they differ with respect to the specific values that are included in their respective frameworks. For instance, Trompenaars (1993) focuses on values related to relationships such as obligation, emotional orientation in relationships, and involvement in relationships. By contrast, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) emphasize more global values such as people’s relationship to nature and time-orientation. With respect to our study, Hofstede’s framework of national cultures is the most appropriate since he ident ified values related to economic activity (Husted, 2000). Therefore, his framework is germane for the study of business decisions. Focusing on national cultures, Hofstede (1997, p. 260) defines culture as the â€Å"collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another†. Thus, although the problems faced by groups (whether organizational or national) are universal, the solutions devised by each group may be relatively unique to that group. These solutions then become taken for granted over time, and may suggest why people hold certain beliefs and behave the way they do (Schneider and Barsoux, 1997). Hofstede (1980, 1988) has suggested that five dimensions of national culture underlie differences in the behavior of individuals from different cultural backgrounds. Since these dimensions describe how individuals view and interpret situations and behavior, they are likely to be related to how individuals engage in decision-making in general (Weick, 1979; Adler, 2002). Ethical decisionmaking, too, is likely to be affected by these dimensions of national culture. Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions (1980, 1988) are power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity/femininity, individualism/collectivism, and long-term/short-term orientation. Power distance refers to the degree to which less powerful members in a country accept an unequal distribution of power. Uncertainty avoidance depicts a people’s ability to cope with ambiguous situations as well as the mechanisms they have created to avoid such situations. Masculinity exemplifies a focus on material things, such as money, success, etc., whereas femininity refers to a focus on quality of life, caring, etc. Individualism, which will be discussed in more detail later, refers to the tendency of people to consider their interests and those of A Comparative Investigation of Business Ethics their immediate family only. By contrast, collectivism refers to the inclination of people to view themselves as part of a larger group, and to protect the interests of group members. Longterm/short-term orientation describes the time perspective people take when dealing with a situation. Table I represents the scores for Hofstede’s cultural dimensions for Brazil and the U.S. While the scores indicate dissimilarities between the U.S. and Brazil on all five cultural dimensions, by far the largest difference appears in the individualism/collectivism dimension. Brazil scored low on individualism, and hence is considered a collectivistic country; by contrast, the U.S. scored high on individualism and is considered an individualistic country. The individualism/collectivism dimension describes how individuals relate to others and to society, and represents the extent to which they are emotionally and cognitively attached to a particular network of individuals. Individualism describes the inclination of individuals to be primarily concerned with their personal interests and their immediate family’s welfare (Hofstede, 1980). Members of a highly individualistic country view themselves as independent of organizations or institutions, and place a higher value on self-reliance and individual action. Collectivism, in comparison, describes a culture where individuals are viewed as part of a larger group, and look after each other. Collectivistic cultures protect the interests of their members in return for their loyalty. In collectivist cultures, morality is defined in terms of the benefits for the in-group (family, friends, work companies, 269 etc.), implying the maintenance of solidarity (Triandis and Bhawuk, 1997). Hofst ede (1980) noted that the individualism/collectivism dimension carried â€Å"strong moral overtones† because this dimension was reflected in value systems shared by the majority. For example, in a highly individualistic country, individualism is viewed as a strength and the major reason for the country’s accomplishments. By comparison, inhabitants of a highly collectivistic country view an emphasis on self as a negative attribute to be eliminated for the good of society. Competing ethical frameworks for business decisions Ethics are the principles of human conduct regarding either an individual or a group (Shaw, 1999), and represent the moral standards not governed by law, that focus on the human consequences of actions (Francesco and Gold, 1998). Ethics often require behavior that meets higher standards than those established by law, including selfless behavior rather than calculated action intended to produce a tangible benefit. With respect to this study, business ethics describe the ultimate rules governing the assessment of â€Å"what constitutes right or wrong, or good or bad human conduct in a business context† (Shaw, 1999). In the assessment of ethical behavior, perception is critical (Hartmann, 2000). Indeed, ethical decisions may be influenced by our own perception, by others’ perceptions of our actions, and by our perception of â€Å"universal laws†. As a TABLE I Cultural dimensions (Hofstede 1980, 1988, 2001) Dimensions of culture U.S. Brazil Difference Power distance Uncertainty avoidance 40 46 69 76 (29) (30) Individualism/Collectivism 91 38 53 Masculine/Feminine Confucian Dynamism 62 29 49 65 13 (36) 270 Rafik I. Beekun et al. result, our final choices may be determined by the perception tha t is the most salient at the time. Further, Hartmann suggests that cultures may differ not only with respect to the ethical principles underlying decisions but also with respect to which of the three stakeholders – self, society, and universal laws – is emphasized in any given situation. Depending on which stakeholder is emphasized, people from different cultures may vary in their assessment of the ethical nature of a decision. Across most situations, ethical principles that distinguish right from wrong actions are encompassed by several normative theories, e.g., justice, relativism, egoism, utilitarianism, and deontology. These theories can generate potentially conflicting interpretations of what is ethical or unethical, originating from the very nature of the theories themselves. Moreover, prior research (Cohen et al., 1996; Hansen, 1992; Reidenbach and Robin, 1988, 1990) indicates that individuals making ethical decisions do not select a single theory or philosophy by which to make their decisions. In fact, Reidenbach and Robin (1988) found that a varying combination of ethical philosophies or theories is employed when ethical decisions are made. Shaw (1999) draws a distinction between two types of ethical theories, consequentialist and nonconsequentialist. Consequentialist theories suggest that the moral rightness of an action depends on the actual or intended results of the action. What is right is determined by â€Å"weighing the ratio of good to bad that an action is likely to produce† (Shaw, 1999, p. 45). A key issue underlying consequentialist theories is the nature of the beneficiaries of the action under consideration. Should one consider the consequences for oneself or for all involved? The most important consequentialist theories are egoism and utilitarianism. Egoism promotes individual self-interest as the guiding principle whereas utilitarianism advocates that everyone affected by the action or decision must be taken into account (Shaw, 1999). By contrast, nonconsequentialist theories suggest that it is not simply the consequence of an act that matters, but also its inherent character. Although these theories do not deny that con- sequences are morally relevant, they assert that other factors are also important in assessing the moral significance of an action. For example, â€Å"breaking a promise† is wrong not simply because of the consequences that result from breaking it, but also because of the nature of the act itself. In this study, we focus on consequentialist theories for several reasons. First, Hofstede’s individualism/collectivism dimension can be clearly and easily related to the two consequentialist theories. Second, the two theories represent the perceptions of two of the three possible sta keholders identified by Hartmann (2000), namely own perceptions and others’ perceptions. Third, staying within one theoretical category allows for a much more parsimonious, yet thorough, analysis. Ethical perspectives and national culture: hypotheses Whether egoistic or utilitarian principles are employed, ethics are a product of a society’s culture, which includes its traditions, values, and norms. Within a society, ethical behavior is generally agreed upon. Francesco and Gold (1998, p. 40) explain that â€Å"members implicitly understand how relationships, duties and obligations among people and groups ought to be conducted, and distinguish between their selfinterests and the interests of others.† However, when two or more countries interact, they often find that their ethics differ. According to Hendry (1999), these differences may lead to three types of culturally based ethical conflicts. First, there are those conflicts where the ethical values typifying the two national cultures lead to differing conclusions; what is deemed unethical from one perspect ive is considered to be ethical from the other. Second, conflict may arise when businesspersons from one culture consider something morally significant whereas their counterparts from another culture are ethically neutral. Third, business people from two cultures may interpret a common situation differently even when there is some commonality among their national values. A Comparative Investigation of Business Ethics To investigate the relationship between national culture and ethics, we chose two culturally diverse countries, Brazil and the U.S. Given the differences in their respective national cultures, we expect Brazilians and Americans to differ in their assessment of the ethical content of business decisions. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis: H1: The assessment of the ethical content of business decisions is a function of national culture. Egoism and individualism/collectivism According to egoism, the only valid standard of one’s behavior is one’s obligation to advance one’s well-being above everyone else’s (Beauchamp and Bowie, 1997). Promotion of one’s own longterm interest is viewed as the only worthwhile objective and the only determinant of whether an act is morally right or not. Nothing is owed to others or to the organization that one works in. Those who abide by this approach to ethics intensely believe that all altruistic efforts by others are really acts of self-promotion since an individual may have to help others in order to advance his/her own interests. Brazil is collectivistic whereas the U.S. is individualistic. As discussed earlier, persons from an individualistic culture emphasize their families’ and their own int erests. H1.a: When applying egoistic criteria to judge the ethical content of an action or a decision, respondents from the U.S. will be less likely than respondents from Brazil to see a decision or action as unethical. Utilitarianism and individualism/collectivism Utilitarianism, in direct contrast to egoism, â€Å"is the moral doctrine that we should always act to produce the greatest possible balance of good over bad for everyone affected by our action† (Shaw, 1999, p. 49). Although utilitarians also 271 evaluate an action in terms of its consequences, an action is ethical if it results in the greatest benefit or â€Å"good† for the largest number of people. Issues of self-interest are not germane since actions are assessed in accordance with one primary standard: the general good. Utilitarianism has long been associated with social improvement and the promotion of actions that are in the best interest of â€Å"the community.† Actions are right if they promote the greatest human welfare. Brazil is collectivistic. Persons from a collectivistic culture focus on actions that lead to the greatest benefit for most members of a group. H1.b: When applying utilitarian criteria to judge the ethical content of an action or a decision, respondents from Brazil will be less likely than respondents from the U.S. to see an action or decision as unethical. To be consistent with prior ethics research (Reidenbach and Robin, 1988), the above hypotheses (H1.a and H1.b) together suggest that Americans and Brazilians rely on more than one ethical criterion when assessing the ethical content of an action or decision. However, we are also suggesting that when each specific ethical criterion they refer to is considered separately, people from different national cultures will vary in their assessment of the ethical content of a course of action or a decision. Methodology Sample Data were collected from 126 respondents – 92 from the U.S. and 34 from Brazil. U.S. participants included MBA students at a regional university as well as business professionals. Brazilian participants were all students enrolled in an Executive MBA program. We used MBA students in our study for two reasons. First, MBA students are a commonly used proxy for business people (Dubinsky and Rudelius, 1980). Dubinsky and Rudelius’ (1980) comparison of 272 Rafik I. Beekun et al. student versus professional evaluations found a high degree of congruence between the two groups. Second, since all students (both U.S. and Brazilian) were currently employed by companies or had recent professional work experience, the sample can be used as a proxy for business professionals in both countries. Data collection The instrument we used was Reidenbach and Robin’s (1988) pre-validated, multi-criteria instrument incorporating the core dimensions that underlie several ethical perspectives. We selected this survey instrument because it is a multi-philosophy and multi-item questionnaire. As a result, it will enable us to assess both ethical dimensions of interest, i.e., egoism and utilitarianism, simultaneously. This instrument incorporates multiple items for each ethical philosophy and, therefore, is relatively more reliable than single item instruments (Kerlinger, 1986). Reidenbach and Robin’s instrument includes an initial set of scales that has shown evidence of high reliability and modest convergent validity with respect to U.S. respondents. The scales correlate highly with a univariate measure of the ethical content of situations. Hence, the instrument can be said to have high construct validity in the U.S. Additional reliability and validation efforts for the wh ole sample and for Brazil specifically are reported below. Using a seven-point Likert scale (1 = ethical, 7 = unethical), respondents were asked to rate the action in three scenarios using the criteria (items) described in Table II. The perception of and the criteria emphasized in evaluating the ethical content of a decision or situation depend on the nature of the decision or the situation. In accordance with previous research, scenarios will be used in this study to provide the contextual stimulus and to motivate the evaluation process (Alexander and Becker, 1978). We adopted the three scenarios developed and validated by Reidenbach and Robin (1988, 1990). Table III presents the three scenarios used in this study. Data were collected by means of the abovementioned instrument administered to Brazilian participants (in Portuguese) and provided via written instrument and website access to U.S. participants (in English). The Brazilian instrument was back translated to ensure equivalence. Efforts were made to establish the reliability and validity of the instrument in this comparative context and are reported as follows. We examined the reliability of the instrument by assessing its internal consistency through the use of Cronbach’s alpha. Since we used three different measures (one for each of the scenarios), we calculated three inter-item coefficient alphas. The Cronbach alpha was 0.81 for the first scenario, 0.75 for the second scenario and 0.86 for the third scenario. All three coefficients indicate that the scale items are internally con- TABLE II Ethics instrument scales Ethical perspective Items (Seven-point Likert scale †“ 1 to 7)* Egoism Self promoting/not self promoting Self sacrificing/not self sacrificing Personally satisfying/not personally satisfying Utilitarianism Produces greatest utility/produces the least utility Maximizes benefits while minimizes harm/minimizes benefits while maximizes harm Leads to the greatest good for the greatest number/leads to the least good for the greatest number * Generally speaking, in the above bipolar scales, 1 = fair or just or efficient (ethical) whereas 7 = unfair, unjust or inefficient (unethical). A Comparative Investigation of Business Ethics

Forms of Media Table Essay

There are many kinds of media available for use in a presentation. However, each type of media has benefits and drawbacks. After reviewing this week’s reading, complete the table related to various forms of media used in public speaking. Form Benefits Drawbacks Objects Using objects can show off great techniques and examples of what you’re talking about. They can also be used to have live demonstrations for your topic It can be distracting if it is too large and unable to show off successfully to the audience. Models Can be used to demonstrate things to the audience without the presenter the speaker being distracted trying to do it themselves. Models can be distracting especially if they are not familiar with what they are supposed to be doing. Photographs They can help provide an exact depiction They can be harder to enlarge Drawings You can highlight exact areas and add labels to the drawing to point out specific parts and their names They can have inaccuracies depending on the skill level of the drawer. Graphs Great for showing large amounts of statistical data Can be confusing if the wrong type of graph is used for a specific amount of data Charts Used to show the relation of percentages and proportions Charts can get easily confusing for audiences if they are not large enough or they are too busy Transparencies These can be lit up and brought up on the screen to use as references for a speech presentation They are old school. It requires the correct equipment and can be hard to read at times if there isn’t room to make larger and legible. Videos These are useful whenever it will show a better example than other forms of multimedia to present the point to the listeners When they are unclear, hard to see, or hard to understand it will work against your presentation and can muddy water Multimedia presentations They work great to hold the attention of the listeners as long as it is well mended and unified It can be especially distracting if your media is all over the place and confuses the audience during the presentation Speakers Can be a great visual aid for actions and movements It can be distracting Others It can be useful to use other sources besides electronic ones. Such as marker boards, flip charts, and printed photographs or handouts. This will draw your audience’s attention by attracting different senses. This is a drawback if your presentation is too busy and has too many things going on. Ensure the presentation mends well and remove anything that sticks out and does not fit well with the rest of the material.

The No Child Left Behind - 1693 Words

The United States of America is among the countries in the world that highly focus on the education of its citizens. The country’s government allots sufficient funding for its education, thus the country is considered the number one nation that spends on per student than any other nation in in the world. With the high price of education and the high cost of funding, the country aims to ensure that all public schools in all states achieve quality education. The â€Å"No Child Left Behind† Act is America’s law that expanded the role of the federal government in education reform, particularly focused on improving the education of marginalized American students. At the core of this act are various measures in increasing student achievement. It also puts emphasis on the accountability of states and schools for student achievement and progress. The law ushered important changes in the education of Americans in various aspects including annual testing, academic progress , report cards, teacher qualifications, curriculum, and funding. It continues to set a benchmark for the achievement of desired level of quality of education in all states in America. Through the years, the â€Å"No Child Left Behind† Act is faced with controversies and debates by various educators, policy makers, groups and individuals in America (Editorial Projects in Education Research Center, No Child Left Behind, edweek.org). State governments have the power to set overall education standards in America. They areShow MoreRelatedNo Child Left Behind958 Words   |  4 Pages Good intentions are no excuse to continue a fail policy. Since the No Child left Behind Act (NCLB) became in effect, teachers have been restricted to teach in a certain way. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, signed into law by President George W. Bush on January 8, 2002, which was a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. President Bush once said; â€Å"education is the gateway to a hopeful future for America’s children. America relies on good teachersRead MoreThe No Child Left Behind952 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"In 2002, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) law was the first to mandate nationwide testing at various grade levels† (Breiner, 2015). Since then, summative tests have been used to assess the achievement of students and increase accountability for both the schools and teachers (Kubiszyn Borich, 2013, p. 15-25). These summative tests, also referred to as high-stakes tests, are given annually to students in third to ninth grade in language arts, math, and reading (Roach, 2014; Shepard, 2003). ThereRead MoreIs The No Child Left Behind?1626 Words   |  7 PagesOver the past decade or longe r schools in the United States of America have been tasked to produce successful students. In 2002, then-President George W. Bush signed the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) act, yet another phase of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) (Cook, 2011). This has done little if anything to prepare students for college or life in general as the standardized tests used for assessing knowledge are actually a ranking method for evaluating aptitude rather than achievementRead MoreNo Child Left Behind1538 Words   |  7 Pagesand falls behind compared to other countries. Children today are tomorrow’s future. They are the next innovators, scientist, doctors, etc. However, the only way children can grow to make the future a better place is if they receive a world class education. It takes a team effort and collaboration of teachers, principals, school leaders and parents. A policy that appeared in the United States, which was close to addressing the flaws within the education system, is the No Child Left Behind policy (NCLB)Read MoreNo Child Left Behind2277 Words   |  10 PagesIn the case of No Child Left Behind (NCLB), is politics the enemy of problem solving? By examining selected political controversies surrounding NCLB, it will be demonstrated that politics is the enemy. Since NCLB’s enactment, vast amounts of research literature and news stories have been published on its effects, which demonstrates the impact and debate generated by this law. The major goals of this bipartisan legislation were to improve student performance through standardized testing by usingRead MoreThe No Child Left Behind1974 Words   |  8 Pagesorder to improve education in America, we have to go to the root of our problem in the school system and find better ways to enforce new rules and regulations that wouldn’t be detrimental to both students, scho ols, and educators alike. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act is having a negative effect on our education system because it reduces the choices of schools for parents, and the distribution of qualified teachers. It also has a negative impact on the amount that kids are able to learn in schoolRead More No Child Left Behind1472 Words   |  6 Pagesgone into many wars. Not just physical wars that I am considered about but also wars on education. The nation could destroy its own glory and way of the source of great future that it rely on by initiating a war on the minds of the children. No Child Left Behind (NCLB) is a federal education policy that was developed in 2001. (Lagana-Riordan and Aguilar 135). NCLB is a program designed to minimize the differences in the level of education that white or rich people get to poor African-American, HispanicRead MoreThe No Child Left Behind8655 Words   |  35 PagesThe No Child Left Behind (NCLB) law, the 2001 update of the Elementary and Sec ondary Education Act (Klein, 2015), was put into place to ensure that all students, regardless of disability label, would meet state mandated academic goals by the 2013-2014 school year. The law was a collaborative effort between both political parties on Capitol Hill, as well as key stakeholders in the civil rights and business groups. The aim of NCLB was to â€Å"advance American competitiveness and close the achievement gapRead MoreNo Child Left Behind555 Words   |  2 Pagesschools and their mission to build the mind and character of every child, from every background in every part of America.† Pr. George W. Bush. The No Child Left Behind Act has plenty of advantages such as: helping students with disabilities, guiding teachers and parents so that they can help the child, and push the child to succeed. Students with language disabilities will be at a disadvantage in reading. The No Child Left Behind has provides students with tutors and extra help with homework. PresidentRead MoreNo Child Left Behind2624 Words   |  11 Pagesthis Paper The No Child Left Behind Act has stacked the deck against schools with special needs. At this point in time with the 2004 elections right around the corner, it seems that this Act is taking a lot of criticism for its rigid approach to the educational progress of our children today. No Child Left Behind has some wonderful goals and aspirations: to close the student achievement gap, make public schools accountable, set standards of excellence for every child, and put a qualified